![]() ![]() ![]() M2 macrophages are therefore considered to be protumor cells. On the other hand, cytokines such as IL‑4, IL-10, and IL-13 can induce macrophage polarization to the M2 subtype, which is not only crucial for the onset of the classical Th2 immune response (i.e., humoral immunity, wound healing, tissue remodeling), but it is also key for the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10 and TGF‑β which foster tumor evolution. In terms of their activity, they are generally considered as antitumor macrophages. M1 macrophages play critical roles in innate host defense by producing reactive oxygen/nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) and proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1β, IL‑6, and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α). ![]() TAMs are extremely plastic immune cells, with two polarized states: classically activated M1 and alternatively activated M2 macrophages. Among the latter are tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), which represent the most abundant subpopulation of tumor-infiltrating immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and can interfere with tumor progression and neoangiogenesis. Solid tumors are composed of both malignant cells and several nonmalignant hematopoietic and mesenchymal cells. ![]()
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